I want Summary for each Unite 1 that in PPT week1,2,3
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Computer Organization
Unit-1: Week-1
Department of Computing
Middle East College, Muscat, Oman
www.mec.edu
Session Objective
At the end of this session, the learner will be able to:
Explain the Basic Structure of a Computer.
List Computer Types.
Describe the Functional Units.
Define the Basic Operational Concepts.
Teaching Materials
Board,
Presentation Slides
Quiz,
Formal Assessment (Discussion on the topic taught in the class)
What is Digital System?
• The term digital is derived from the way computer perform
operations, by counting digits.
• Electronics circuits can be divided into two broad categories:
– Analog (Continues Values)
–
(
– Digital (discrete or step-by-step)
• An analog quantity is one having continuous values.
• A digital quantity is one having a discrete set of values.
• But one can effectively convert an analog quantity to digital
quantity.
??
Why we use digital System??
?
Reasons of Using Digital System
• Easier to design. Exact values of voltage or current are not important, only
the range (HIGH or LOW) in which they fall.
• Information storage is easy.
• More Accurate.
• Operations can be programmed.
• Digital circuits are less affected by noise.
• More digital circuitry can be fabricated on IC chips.
Basic Components of a Computer
• Computer: Computer is fast electronic calculating machine
that
– Accepts digitized input information,
– Processes it according to a list of internally stored
instructions, and
– Produces the resulting output information.
Block Diagram of a Computer
Brain Drill
• Identify the basic elements of a computer using the
previous figure?
•
•
•
•
•
I_ _U_
_U_P_T
ME_ _ _ Y
CO_T_ _ L
Arithmetic _____Unit
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
Computer Types
• Many types of computer exist that differ widely:
– Size, Cost, Computational Power and Intended use.
• The different types of computer are:
– Personal Computer/Desktop Computer
– Notebook Computers
– Workstations
– Enterprise systems or mainframe computers
– Servers
– Supercomputers
Personal Computer/Desktop Computer
• It is the most common computer, which has found wide use in
– homes, school and business offices.
• It is the most common form of desktop computers.
• Desktop computers have:
– Processing and storage units,
– Visual display and audio output units.
– Keyboard and Mouse.
• The storage media includes:
– Hard disks
– CD-ROMs
– Diskettes.
Notebook Computers
• Portable notebook computers are:
– A compact version of the personal computer.
– All components packaged into a single unit the size of a thin briefcase.
Workstations
• Workstations have:
– High-resolution graphics input/output capability
– More computational power that personal computers.
• Workstations often used in
– Engineering Applications, especially for Interactive Design.
Enterprise Systems or Mainframes
• Enterprise systems, or mainframe are:
– Used for business data processing in medium to large corporations.
– Provides much more computing power and storage capacity than
workstations can provide.
Servers
• Servers contains:
– sizable database storage units and
– capable of handling large volumes of requests to access the data.
• Servers are widely accessible to the
– education, business, and personal user communities.
• Request and Response:
– The request and responses are usually transported over Internet
communication facilitates.
Supercomputers
• Supercomputers are used for
– large-scale numerical calculations required in applications.
– Example: weather forecasting and aircraft design and simulation.
Brain Drill
• At Middle East College, to enhance the teaching and learning
process college want to buy new computers. By using the new
computers students will be able to access the data from the
central system.
Which type of computers college should buy? And why?
Functional Units
• A computer consists of five functionally independent main
parts:
–
–
–
–
–
Input
Memory
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Output
Control Units
Figure: Basic Functional Units of a Computer (without
connections)
Functional Unit Cont.
• The input unit accepts coded information
– from human operators, from electromechanical devices such as key
board or
– from other computers over digital communication lines.
• The information received is
– either stored in the computer’s memory for later reference or
– immediately used by the arithmetic and logic circuitry to perform the
desired operations.
Functional Unit Cont.
• The processing steps are determined by a program stored in the
memory.
• Finally, the results are sent back to the outside world through the
output unit.
• All these actions are coordinated by control unit.
Instructions or Machine Instructions
• Instructions, or machine instructions, are explicit commands
that:
– Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as between
and its I/O devices.
– Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed.
• A list of instructions that performs a task is called a program.
• The program is stored in the memory.
• The processor then fetches the instructions that make up the
program from the memory, one after another and perform the
desired operations.
Input Unit
• Computers accept coded information through input unit.
• The most well-known input device is the keyboard.
• Whenever a key is pressed
– the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code and
– transmitted over a cable to either the memory or the processor.
• Many other kinds of input devices are available such as:
– Joysticks, trackball and mouse
Memory Unit
• The function of memory unit is to store programs and data.
• There are two classes of storage
– Primary Storage
– Secondary Storage.
Primary Storage
• It is a fast memory that operates at electronic speeds.
• Program must be stored in the memory while they are being
executed.
• Contains large number of semiconductor storage cell
• Each cell is capable of storing one bit information.
• The cells are processed in groups of fixed size called words.
• The number of bits in each word is often referred to as the word
length of the computer.
• Typical word lengths range from 16 to 64 bits.
Primary Storage Cont.
• Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and
fixed amount of time after specifying its address is called
random access memory (RAM).
• The time required to access one word is called the memory
access time.
• The memory of a computer is normally implemented as a
memory hierarchy of three or four levels of semiconductor RAM
units with different speeds and sizes.
• The small, fast, RAM units are called caches.
• The largest and slowest unit is referred to as main memory.
Secondary Storage
• Primary storage is essential, but it tends to be expensive.
• Thus additional cheaper, secondary storage is used
– when large amount of data and many programs have to be stored.
• A wide selection of secondary storage devices is available, which
includes:
– Magnetic Disks, Tapes and Optical Disks(CD-ROMs)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Any arithmetic or logic operation such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division or comparison of numbers is initiated by
bringing the required operands into the processor where the
operation is performed by the ALU.
• When operands are brought into the processor, they are stored in
high-speed storage elements called registers.
• Each register can store one word of data.
• Example: Suppose two numbers located in the memory are to be
added. They are brought into the processor, and the actual
addition is carried out by the ALU.
Output Unit
• Output unit is used to:
– Send processed result to the outside world.
– Example: printer
Control Unit
• The memory, arithmetic and logic, input and output units store
and process information and perform input and output
operations.
• The operation of these units must be coordinated in some way.
• This is the task of control unit.
• The control unit is effectively sends control signals to other units
and senses their states.
Summary: Operation of a Computer
• The computer accepts information in the form of programs and
data through an input unit and stores in the memory.
• Information stored in the memory is fetched, under program
control, into an arithmetic and logic unit, where it is processed.
• Processed information leaves the computer through an output
unit.
• All activities inside the machine are directed by the control unit.
Class Exercise
•
•
•
•
•
1- Explain the working of Control Unit?
2- List the different Computer types?
3- List the different elements (parts) of functional unit?
4- Describe the term instruction?
5- Explain the difference between Workstations and Enterprise
System?
• 6- Which type of computer you will prefer to use for large
calculation of data?
Computer Organization
Unit-1: Week-2
Department of Computing
Middle East College
www.mec.edu
Session Objective
At the end of this session, the learner will be able to:
– Explain the Basic Operational Concepts.
– Understand the connections between the processor and
the memory for the operations.
– Describe the Bus structure.
– Performance and related elements
Teaching Material
Board.
Presentation Slides.
Quiz.
Formal Assessment (Discussion on the topic taught in the
class)
Basic Operational Concepts
• To perform a given task, an appropriate program consisting of a
list of instructions is stored in the memory.
• Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the
processor, which executes the specified operations.
• Data to be used as operands are also stored in the memory.
• A typical instruction may be given as:
Add LOCA, R0
This instruction adds the operand at memory location LOCA to
the operand in a register in the processor, R0, and places the
sum into register R0. The original contents of location LOCA are
preserved, whereas those of R0 are overwritten.
Basic Operational Concepts Cont.
• This instruction requires the performance of several steps.
– First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor.
– Next, the operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the
contents of R0.
– Finally, the resulting sum is stored in register R0.
Connection Between Processor and Memory for
Operation
Memory
Processor
MAR
PC
MDR
R0
IR
: Instruction Register
PC
: Program Counter
MAR
: Memory Address Register
MDR
: Memory Data Register
Rn-1
ALU
: Arithmetic Logic Unit
n general purpose register
R0…Rn-1
R1
IR
Terms used in the diagram
Control
….
ALU
Figure: Connections between the processor and the memory
: Processor Register
Connection Between Processor and Memory for
Operation Cont.
• The instruction register (IR) holds the instruction that is currently being
executed.
• Program counter (PC) is another specialized register. It keeps track of the
execution of a program. It contains the memory address of the next
instruction to be fetched and executed. During the execution of an
instruction, the contents of the PC are updated to correspond to the address
of the next instruction to be executed.
• Two registers facilitate communication with the memory. These are the
“Memory Address Register (MAR) and the “Memory Data Register (MDR)”.
• The MAR holds the address of the location to be accessed.
• The MDR contains the data to be written into or read out of the address
location.
Bus Structures
• To achieve a reasonable speed of operation, a computer must be organized so
that all its units can handle one full word of data at a given time.
• “A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices is called
a bus”.
• In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus must have lines for address
and control purpose.
• The simplest way to interconnect functional units is to use a single bus as
shown in the figure.
• All units are connected to this bus. Because the bus can be used for only one
transfer at a time, only two units can actively use the bus at any given time.
• Bus control lines are used to arbitrate multiple requests for use of the bus.
Performance
• The most important measure of the performance of a computer is how quickly
it can execute programs.
• The speed with which a computer executes programs is affected by
– The design of its hardware and
– Its machine language instructions.
• To discuss the performance of the processor, we should consider only the
periods during which the processor is active. These are the periods labeled
program and OS routines as shown in the figure ahead:
Printer
Disk
OS
Routines
Program
t0
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
Time
Performance Cont.
• Elapsed time to execute the program =
• This elapsed time is a measure of the performance of the entire computer
system. It is affected by the speed of the processor, the disk, and the printer as
shown in the figure.
• We will refer to the sum of these periods as the processor time needed to
execute the program.
• The elapsed time for the execution of a program depends on all units in a
computer system; the processor time depends on the hardware involved in
the execution of individual machine instructions. This hardware comprises
the processor and the memory, which are usually connected by a bus.
Flow of Program Instructions and Data
• At the start of execution, all program instructions and the required data are
stored in the main memory.
• As execution proceeds, instructions are fetched one by one over the bus into
the processor, and a copy is placed in the cache.
• When the execution of an instruction calls for data located in the main
memory, the data are fetched and a copy is placed in the cache.
• Later, if the same instruction or data item is needed a second time, it is read
directly from the cache.
Processor Clock
• Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called a clock.
• The clock defines regular time intervals, called a clock cycles.
• To execute a machine instruction, the processor divides the action to be
performed into a sequence of basic steps, such that each step can be
completed in one clock cycle.
• The length P of one clock cycle is an important parameter that affects
processor performance.
• It inverse is the clock rate as given:
which is measured in cycles per second.
• The term cycle per second is called hertz (Hz).
Basic Performance Equation
• Assume that:
T
: Processor time required to execute a program that has been prepared in some
high-level language.
N : The number of machine language instruction require for the complete
execution of the program.
S
: Average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction.
R
: Clock rate in cycles per second
Then the program execution time can be given as follows:
N S
T
R
This is often referred to as the “Basic Performance Equation”.
Clock Rate
• There are two possibilities for increasing the clock rate, R.
– First, improving the integrated circuit (IC) technology makes logic circuits
faster, which reduces the time needed to complete a basic step. This
allows the clock period, P to be reduced and the clock rate R to be
increased.
– Second, reducing the amount of processing done in one basic step also
makes it possible to reduce the clock period P.
• Increases in the value of R affect all aspects of the processor’s operation.
• The value of T will be reduced by the same factor as R is increased because S
and N are not affected.
Performance Measurement
Problems in Performance Measurement:
• As we discussed that the only parameter that properly describes the
performance of a computer is the execution time T, for the programs of
interest.
• Computing the value of T is not simple. Moreover, parameters such as the
clock speed and various architectural features are not reliable indicators of the
expected performance.
Solution:
• For these reasons, the computer community adopted the idea of measuring
computer performance using benchmark programs.
• The performance measure is the time it takes a computer to execute a given
benchmark.
Performance Measurement Cont.
• A nonprofit organization called System Performance Evaluation Corporation
(SPEC) selects and publishes representative application programs for different
application domains.
• For SPEC95, the reference is SUN SPARC station 10/40. For SPEC2000, the
reference computer is an Ultra-SPARC10 workstation with a 300-MHz
UltraSPARC-III processor.
• The SPEC rating is computed as follows:
=
Let be the rating for program in the suite. The overall SPEC rating for the
computer is given by:
= ෑ
=
Where n is the number of programs in the suite.
Brain Drill
• 1- Describe the basic operational concepts?
• 2- What are the steps require for performing an instruction?
• 3- Explain the use of all the elements used in the connection
between the processor and the memory with the help of
diagram.
• 4- Demonstrate the working of bus structure.
• 5- Explain the flow of program instruction and data?
• 6- Write the basic performance equation?
• 7- Write the formula for computing SPEC rating?
Computer Organization
Unit-1: Week-3
Department of Computing
Middle East College
www.mec.edu
Case
• The box that houses most of the system components.
• It provide an environment that minimizes electrical interference
to other electronic devices in the area.
• It should provide a proper heat level for safe operation
• It also provide bays and connections for drives, circuit boards,
and I/O devices.
Peripheral Devices
• The devices that are attached to a computer to expand its
capabilities are called a peripheral device.
• Peripheral devices does not form part of the core computer
architecture.
• The most common peripherals are
–
–
–
–
Input devices,
Output devices,
Storage,
Display devices etc.
Input Devices
• Mouse:
– The mouse is a hand fitting device
– It uses some form of motion-detection mechanism
– Many variations of the mouse exist, including trackballs, tablets,
touchpad’s, and pointing sticks.
• Keyboard:
– The keyboard is the most popular input device.
– Modern computer keyboards often have separate cursormovement and numerical keypads.
– Keyboards have also added function keys, which are often placed in
a row across the top of the keyboard above the numerical row.
Input Devices cont.
• Barcode Reader:
– It is a input device commonly used in retail and other
industrial sectors that manage inventory.
– Barcode readers can use LEDs or lasers as light sources and
can scan one-or two-dimensional barcodes.
Input Devices cont.
• Multimedia Devices:
– Two broad categories of multimedia input are audio and video.
– Digital motion and still cameras are incredibly popular as a replacement
for similar video products.
Input Devices cont.
• Biometric Devices:
– Any device that measures one or more physical or behavioral features of
an organism is considered a biometric device.
– Forwards the biometric information to the computer.
– The list includes fingerprint scanners, retinal scanners, voice recognition,
and facial reco …
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