Solved by a verified expert:NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCEWhy Sex Is GoodbyClyde Freeman HerreidDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity at Buffalo, State University of New YorkBirds do it. Bees do it.Even educated fleas do it.Let’s do it. Let’s fall in love.—Cole PorterPart I—”It”Why do so many organisms go through sexual reproduction? It seems like every organism we think aboutdoes it: clams, jellyfish, trees, and elephants. And while we’re thinking about it: why only two sexes? Itdoesn’t have to be that way. Some fungi have dozens of sexes, enough to keep a romance novelist and ascriptwriter of soap operas ecstatic for years.Sex really isn’t necessary for reproduction. Bacteria and many one-celled organisms like amoebae reproducequite nicely by simply dividing in half (binary fission). They produce identical copies of themselves, quite anefficient way of sending one’s genes on to the next generation. They do it alone. For them, it doesn’t take twoto tango.Complex organisms can do it too. Some lizard species have only one sex—females. They reproduceparthenogenetically—that is, females produce eggs that spontaneously start development without spermbeing involved at all. They are completely asexual.Some species have it both ways: they reproduce both sexually and asexually. Queen bees when they producefemales (workers) release sperm out of a storage sac and fertilize the egg in the normal way, but when theywant to produce males (drones) they hold the sperm back and the eggs develop by parthenogenesis.Water flea (Daphnia) populations seem to switch from asexual to sexual depending on environmentalconditions. And some species of fish actually switch from being one sex to the other depending on whichgender is in short supply. Science fiction writers should love these gender benders.So, this brings us to a fundamental question that biologists have not solved: If organisms can survive wellwithout sex—in fact, may do better without it—why has sexual reproduction evolved?Questions1. Propose three hypotheses to explain why sexual reproduction has evolved. (At least 20 have beensuggested!)2. Can you propose any way to test your favorite hypothesis?“Why Sex Is Good” by Clyde Freeman HerreidPage 1 NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCEPart II—Is It Always Good?In a world without sex there would be no males and females. No flowers, noinsects specialized in pollinating them, no extravagant colour and form like thepeacock’s tail; and much animal behaviour would not exist. —Rolf HoekstraAll of that is true, but so what? Who needs this stuff that Hoekstra is talking about for survival?The great German biologist August Weismann proposed an answer to the question of “Why sex?” Heasserted that sex increases genetic variation. When two different individuals mate by joining their gametestogether, they produce a brand new genetic mixture and this promotes evolutionary adaptation.This idea held sway for a hundred years until a couple of authors, George Williams and Maynard Smith, said,“Hold on. There are a couple of problems with this scenario.” Sex is not always good.1. Mixing of the genes tends to break up favorable combinations. Why break up a good thing?2. Asexual reproduction is twice as efficient as sexual reproduction at sending one’s genes into thenext generation. Every time a sexual mother produces a child, that child only has one-half of themother’s genes; the other half is from dad. An asexual mother reproducing parthenogeneticallywould give her child the complete set. In fact, it is better to have every individual in a populationcapable of reproduction (i.e., be a female) than to have individuals who are not (i.e., be a male).Such populations should rapidly out-reproduce a sexual population. This has been called the “twofold cost of sex.”On both of the above counts, it seems clearly disadvantageous for individuals to reproduce sexually! Yet sexhas evolved and seems here to stay.Many scientists have tried to puzzle their way out of this dilemma by testing some of the assumptionsinherent in the argument.Questions1. Can you design a way to test the hypothesis that asexual reproduction leads to a higherevolutionary fitness (i.e., leads to more progeny) than sexual reproduction?“Why Sex Is Good” by Clyde Freeman HerreidPage 2 NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCEPart III—Sex and StressThere is a snail that lives in New Zealand lakes that has both asexual and sexual individuals. Curtis Lively(currently at Indiana University) and his colleagues decided that the snails could be used to test thehypothesis that a changing or stressful environment would favor sexual reproduction—the logic being that ifthe environment changes, then variation (sexual reproduction) is a good thing; some of your offspring mighthave the right genetic constitution to survive.Here’s the situation the biologists found. The snails live in freshwater habitats and there are over a dozenworm parasites that attack them. The scientists reasoned that there might be a difference in the fitness of theasexual and sexual individuals in ponds where there were different degrees of parasitism.This is what they found: in ponds where there was a high degree of parasitism there was a much higherpercentage (2.5 times more) of sexually reproducing individuals.Questions1. Before carrying out the experiment, why did the scientists expect there would be a difference infitness between sexual and asexual snails in ponds with different degrees of parasitism?2. Are the data they obtained consistent with Weismann’s hypothesis? Explain your thinking.“Why Sex Is Good” by Clyde Freeman HerreidPage 3 NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCEPart IV—An ExperimentA team of scientists at the Imperial College London tackled the problem and published their results inNature magazine (March 25, 2005). They decided to use yeasts, which are single-celled fungi, because theycan reproduce both sexually and asexually, are easy to keep in the lab, and reproduce very rapidly.Yeasts normally reproduce asexually, but when they are stressed (starved, high temperatures, etc.) they willreproduce sexually. The scientists did not want this switching to occur. So they genetically manipulated oneasexual strain. They deleted the two genes (spo11 and spo13) required for normal meiosis, so that sexualreproduction was impossible. Now they had two pure strains—asexual and sexual.The Imperial College team decided to compare the reproductive rate of the asexual vs. the sexual yeastsin two different environments: harsh and benign. That is, “fitness” would be measured by comparing thegrowth rate relative to the non-evolved ancestral strain. The benign environment had plenty of nutrientsalthough glucose was limited so that growth was not uncontrolled. The harsh environment had the sameglucose concentration but was at a higher temperature and had more demanding osmotic conditions.Question1. On the graph below plot the results you would expect if Weismann’s hypothesis were correct. Plot thechanges in fitness values over time in the populations of sexual yeasts in benign conditions, asexual yeastsin benign conditions, asexual yeasts in harsh conditions, and sexual yeasts in harsh conditions.Natural logarithm of relative fitness1.00.80.60.40.20.0-0.2050100150200250300Mitotic generation“Why Sex Is Good” by Clyde Freeman HerreidPage 4 NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCEPart V—The ResultsHere are the results of the real experiment.The change in natural logarithm of fitness of asexual and sexual populations of yeast in benign and harshenvironments. Points show fitness measurements for individual populations with twice log-likelihood errorbars (these approximate 95% confidence limits); the error bars for the benign treatment are plotted butare mostly too small to be discriminated. The fitted model for the harsh environment is plotted for asexual(blue) and sexual (red) treatments (parameters: a1 = 0.761, a2(asexual) = -5.287, a2(sexual) = -4.901). Yellowsymbols, asexual strains in the benign environment; green, sexual in the benign environment; blue, asexualin the harsh environment; red, sexual in the harsh environment. (Reprinted by permission from MacmillanPublishers Ltd: Nature 434, 636-640, doi:10.1038/nature03405, copyright 2005.)Question1. What conclusions can you make based upon the data?Credit: Licensed image in title block © Alwyn Cooper | iStockphoto, id #121897. Case copyright held by the National Center forCase Study Teaching in Science, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. Originally published September 5, 2005.Please see our usage guidelines, which outline our policy concerning permissible reproduction of this work.“Why Sex Is Good” by Clyde Freeman HerreidPage 5