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2016_20kya212_375_20laboratory_20notes_3.pdf

physics_20lab_20data.xlsx

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KYA212/KYA375
SECOND-YEAR PHYSICS LABORATORY
Individual experiments 2016
v. 1.0, July 17, 2016
Contents
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
2
Report Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
Treatment of Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
4
Michelson Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5
4.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Electron Charge to Mass Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Appendix A: Electron motion in the e/m apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6
7
The Earth’s Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Diffraction of Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
i
CONTENTS
8
9
10
11
12
7.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Hysteresis & the Magnetisation of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.5
Appendix: The LM301 Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Polarisation of Reflected Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
9.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Entropy Changes in a Rubber Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
10.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
10.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Time Domain Reflectometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11.3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.4
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.5
Bonus Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.2
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.3
Rectangular Waveguide Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
ii
CONTENTS
13
12.4
Tube Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.5
Helical Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.6
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
13.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
13.2
Wavelength in the Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
13.3
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.4
Cut-off Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.5
Standing Wave at 3 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.6
Wavelength Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.7
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
14 Ultrasonic Ranging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Editors: Andrew Cole & David Hughes (2014)
Contributors: original scripts by Robert Watson, revitalised and edited by Cole and Hughes
from original experimental designs by Watson, David Davies, Mike Emery, John Greenhill,
John Phillips, and Melanie Johnston-Hollitt.
iii
1. INTRODUCTION
1
Introduction
Unit Requirements
You will be assessed on your attendance and participation in the practical exercises, and on
the written reports handed in describing your work. You will take data and make any ancillary
measurements and calculations over the course of three weekly lab periods, and turn in your
writeup during the lab meeting time at the next meeting following.
This semester, you will do three experiments (and turn in three reports). Your
demonstrator will provide you with the due dates for each report. The formatting requirements
for the lab reports are detailed below in Section 2.
Attendance is mandatory during the data-taking phase of the experiments! In practice you will
be working in groups of 2–4 students. The experience of setting up and interacting with the
experiment is a critical part of the work (hence the term “practical”), and your understanding
will likely suffer if you rely on others in your group to take data for you. If you miss a session
without prior arrangements or a medical certificate, you’ll be docked marks according to the
fraction of time missed. Each student must turn in a separate lab report, written
individually (acknowledge the assistance of your fellow group members within the body of
the report).
And just a final reminder, that if you do not achieve at least 50% of the marks in the practical
component of the unit, it is impossible to pass KYA212/KYA375 even if your aggregate mark
would otherwise indicate a pass.
Process over Results
The goal of these practical exercises is to increase your familiarity with experimental methods
and techniques: to get you to try to think like an experimenter, and to expose you to the typical
kind of problems and challenges involved in designing and understanding a good experiment.
In your lab reports, we are NOT looking for the “correct” answer, but for a demonstration that
you tackled the experiment to the best of your ability, and put in some careful thought, backed
up by quantitative analytical reasoning about the results.
A report in which you simply use a search engine to find the standard, “accepted” answer to
a problem and copy it into your work with little or no change will be poorly marked. You
are strongly encouraged to use all available resources to solve your conceptual or mathematical
difficulties, but always give full and proper credit to any source of information, whether it’s
a text passage, a key concept, or a diagram that you wish to include. To do otherwise is
fraudulent and qualifies as academic misconduct. Proceed with caution! — whoever wrote
that Wikipedia article was not using the identical setup used here under identical conditions,
and almost certainly hasn’t considered all of the specific strengths and weaknesses of your
experimental technique. This can lead to nonsensical statements when put in the context of
the practical work done here.
Simply put, your demonstrators want to see evidence in your reports that you understood the
process of taking and analysing data, and put some thought into interpreting your results.
They will be less concerned with whether your answers agree with standard reference works or
not.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Organisation
The individual experiments cover areas of waves, thermal physics, and electromagnetism. Each
of the experiments typically takes three weeks to complete. Experiments will be chosen in
conjunction with your demonstrator to ensure a reasonable coverage of the different areas and
access for all students. Normally you will work on the experiments in pairs or threes. You are
expected to attend three hours per week, during one of the timeslots given in the official UTAS
Student Timetable. If you have a clash with a 3 pm or 4 pm lecture, you are asked to attend
for an additional hour at a time of your choice, by arrangement with the demonstrator.
If you wish to check results or repeat a section of an experiment in your own time, you are
encouraged to do so. The laboratory is normally locked, but enrolled students may obtain
access at any time during normal office hours. However, students will not be permitted to carry
out significant parts of their laboratory work unsupervised in their own time. The individual
experiments have been devised on the assumption that there will be supervision of students
and regular consultation with the demonstrator(s).
Having completed one experiment, you will be expected to turn in a completed report before
beginning the next experiment. Your demonstrator will keep a record of the experiments
you have completed, and will expect you to complete a new experiment by the due dates
given. You will be given details of the report-writing requirements and assessment details at
the commencement of the laboratory course. Detailed information on the required format of
reports is given in Section 2.
Laboratory Notebook
You will be required to keep a laboratory notebook that is an accurate record of work done
and results obtained. It must be kept up to date at all times. It needs to contain sufficient
information to enable you to repeat the experiment if necessary, and to write a detailed report
on any experiment months after you completed it. Neatness is not of primary importance
provided you are able to understand your own records, but completeness is essential. Notes
and experimental results must be written straight into your notebook. They must not be
written on scraps of paper with the intention of transcribing them at a later date. This never
works out well.
Textbooks
A big part of making sense of the physical world is in the sensible construction of experiments
and interpretation of the resulting data. Expertise in physical reasoning depends in large part on
experience, which is why the practical component is so necessary, but analytical skill relies on a
number of well-developed techniques, which are conveyed through the stats section of KYA 211,
Data Handling units in the discipline of Maths, and numerous textbook formulations.
There is no prescribed textbook for the practical course of KYA212/KYA375. However, you are
strongly encouraged to access a copy of the book Practical Physics, by R.L. Squires, and read it
thoroughly. It contains sections on statistics, report writing, and useful laboratory techniques.
The sections on estimation of experimental errors are likely to prove useful for reference for
many years after completion of this course. Another excellent book on the handling of errors is
An Introduction to Error Analysis, by J.R. Taylor, a copy of which is available in the laboratory.
A similar work is Data Reduction and Error Analysis in the Physical Sciences by P.R. Bevington
& D.K. Robinson.
2
2. REPORT WRITING
Calculations and Analysis
You will be expected to discuss and estimate the systematic and random errors in your experiments. You are encouraged to use a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel, Apple
Numbers, LibreOffice (or OpenOffice) Calc, or more sophisticated programming equivalents to
calculate results, do error estimates (in R, MatLab, Python, IDL, etc), and make graphs. Excel
is available in the computer laboratories if you do not have the appropriate computing resources
yourself. You will be expected to use any computer programs in an intelligent manner, using
them only when they are appropriate. It is easy to plug numbers into a computer and accept
an answer presented on a screen, but you must decide whether it has any relevance. Statistical
measures are particularly prone to misuse. As an example, where a least-squares line is fitted
to a set of points, it is up to you to first confirm that the points are consistent with a linear
relation.
Graph-drawing programs must also be handled with care. Ask yourself what you would draw
if you were to draw a graph by hand. If the program does something else, then don’t accept
it. Common faults with elementary graphing programs are postage-stamp size graphs, poor
scales along the axes, over-sized markers for the plotted points (triangles, squares etc.), and
large amounts of white space with the data crowded into one corner. If you are going to take
readings off the graph, then you need a background grid of pale or dotted lines, as you would
find on graph paper; in fact it is better to include a table of datapoints when it would be of
manageable size.
2
Report Writing
Reports must be set out in the nature of a scientific paper with sections outlining the theory,
experimental procedure, results and analysis, and conclusions. Each of those sections should
carry the appropriate heading. All reports must have a brief abstract at the beginning and a
list of references at the end. The crucial questions to ask yourself on completing a first draft
of your report are 1) Could someone else read this, and duplicate the experiment to
reproduce my results?, and 2) If someone else had written this and given it to me
to read, would I believe it?
Students are advised to study the layout of research papers published in scientific journals in
the science library, as examples of good style (well, mostly good) in report writing. Note that
some of the more general-coverage journals such as “New Scientist”, “Scientific American”, and
“Physics Today” employ their own styles and should not be taken as examples of a research
report. Examples of appropriate journals are things like Astrophysical Journal, Solar Physics,
Physical Review Letters, or Journal of Geophysical Research (there are thousands of examples).
The exact layout of a report will depend on the nature of the experiment, but a typical paper
would have the following sections.
Abstract
The purpose of the abstract is to summarise the subject and findings of your work in one short
paragraph. Typically, scientists will want to check several journals in a few minutes to see if any
contain reports of interest to them in their field. They will check the contents page and then
read the abstracts of those reports that may be of interest. Increasingly, scientists subscribe to
services that email a list of abstracts in their field, a dozen or more per day. The abstract is
3
2. REPORT WRITING
your only chance of catching the attention of the people you want to read your work. If your
abstract is not concise and to the point, then no one will bother. It should contain a few words
(normally less than about 50) outlining what has been done, what is new or interesting about
the method you have used, the results and conclusions. It should include numerical results
obtained where this was an aim of the experiment, and their standard error. If the results are
significantly different from accepted values, this should be commented on. You are strongly
advised to look at some examples in journals in the library (or flatter your demonstrator by
asking to see one they’ve written).
Introduction
If the abstract has caught the attention of a reader, their next step will be to read the introduction. The introduction should not just repeat the contents of the abstract, but should
assume the abstract has been read, and expand on it. In particular, it should give the object
of the experiment and a general outline of the theory and method. It will probably include an
outline of previous related measurements and attempt to show how the experiment contributes
to the store of information on the subject. Appropriate comparisons may be made here with
alternative methods, and the historical significance of the experiment may be commented on if
this is relevant.
Theoretical background
The theory underlying the experiment should be given. Where the script for the experiment
describes the mathematics in detail, there is a conflict between the requirements of a bona fide
original research report in which relevant theory is often skimmed over and a result given with
citation to the appropriate works in the literature, and the requirements of a marked report in
which your marker is looking for evidence that you have worked through the maths yourself and
understood what you were doing. From the marking point of view, there is no point in
copying out a slab of theory verbatim from the experiment notes. In this case you
should summarise the notes in your own words, in a manner that makes it clear
that you understand the process. In any case, you should refer to this handbook, giving
page numbers and equation numbers where relevant, and the major steps in the theory should
be written up. Where the script asks students to prove certain statements or equations, this
should be done and described in the report. If the theory is descriptive and short, it may be
appropriate to include it in the introduction.
Experimental Procedure
Describe the procedure and apparatus used, with diagrams, to the extent that they are relevant
to your results. Photographic records of the experiment are often very helpful. Do not include
detailed descriptions of equipment which cannot reasonably have affected the outcome of the
experiment. Discuss difficulties encountered and methods used to overcome them.
Results and Analysis
Final results should either be tabulated or displayed as graphs, as appropriate. If you use
graphs, then the numerical results should be included in an appendix for marking purposes,
referred to in the text by table or figure number. Each table and graph or diagram should have a
table or figure number and brief caption describing it. Methods of analysis should be given but
detailed calculations and measurements leading up to these results are not normally included
in a scientific paper. It should go without saying that graphs must be clearly labelled with a
4
2. REPORT WRITING
legend, with clear distinction between data points and any theoretical or numerical curves or
fits, and clear axis labels. Any information necessary to interpret the graph should be included
in a brief caption.
Error limits should be given for all numerical results and for all intermediate qu …
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