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Design a fairly complex correlation study (more than two variables). Discuss the type of
design, statistical analyses you would perform, potential confounding variables, and potential
ethical issues and their resolution. OR Design a survey study. Discuss the type of design,
methods for selecting the sample, methods for ensuring reliability and validity of the
instrument, methods for maximizing response rate and checking for response bias, statistical
analyses you would perform, and potential ethical issues and their resolution.
Chapter 12 gave some nice tips for developing an instrument. Write a few survey questions
and analyze their quality using the tips presented in the chapter. Or find a survey instrument
and critique using the tips presented in the chapter.
Educational Research
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Educational Research
Planning, Conducting, and
Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
FOURTH EDITION
John W. Creswell
University of Nebraska–Lincoln
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Creswell, John W.
Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research / John W. Creswell. — 4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-136739-5 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-136739-0 (alk. paper)
1. Education—Research—Methodology. I. Title.
LB1028.C742 2012
370.72—dc22
2010050958
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ED
15 14 13 12 11
ISBN-10:
0-13-136739-0
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-136739-5
This text is dedicated to Karen, who provided caring editorial help and
support through four editions of this book. You have been my inspiration and
thoughtful advocate throughout this project. Thanks for standing beside me.
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Brief Contents
PART I
An Introduction to Educational Research 1
CHAPTER 1
PART II
The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches 2
The Steps in the Process of Research 57
CHAPTER 2
Identifying a Research Problem 58
CHAPTER 3
Reviewing the Literature 79
CHAPTER 4
Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 109
CHAPTER 5
Collecting Quantitative Data 140
CHAPTER 6 Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data 174
CHAPTER 7
Collecting Qualitative Data 204
CHAPTER 8 Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data 236
CHAPTER 9
PART III
Reporting and Evaluating Research 265
Research Designs 293
CHAPTER 10
Experimental Designs
294
CHAPTER 11 Correlational Designs
337
CHAPTER 12
Survey Designs 375
CHAPTER 13
Grounded Theory Designs 422
CHAPTER 14
Ethnographic Designs 461
CHAPTER 15
Narrative Research Designs
CHAPTER 16
Mixed Methods Designs 534
CHAPTER 17
Action Research Designs 576
501
vii
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Contents
PART I An Introduction to Educational
Research 1
1
Chapter
The Process of Conducting
Research Using Quantitative
and Qualitative Approaches 2
A Definition of Research and Its Importance 3
Research Adds to Our Knowledge 4 • Research
Improves Practice 4 • Research Informs Policy
Debates 6 • Several Problems with Research
Today 6
The Six Steps in the Process of Research 7
Identifying a Research Problem 8 • Reviewing the
Literature 8 • Specifying a Purpose for Research 9
• Collecting Data 9 • Analyzing and Interpreting
the Data 10 • Reporting and Evaluating
Research 10
The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research in Each of the Six Steps 11
Quantitative Research Characteristics 13 •
Qualitative Research Characteristics 16 •
Similarities and Differences between Quantitative and
Qualitative Research 19 • Research Designs
Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative
Research 20
Important Ethical Issues in Conducting Research 22
Institutional Review Boards 22 • Professional
Associations 23 • Ethical Practices throughout the
Research Process 23 • Some Ethical Issues in Data
Collection 23 • Some Ethical Issues in Data
Reporting 24
Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research 24
Solving Puzzles 25 • Lengthening Your
Attention Span 25 • Learning to Use Library
Resources 25 • Writing, Editing, and More
Writing 25
Key Ideas in the Chapter
26
The Definition and Importance of Educational
Research 26 • The Six Steps in the Process of
Research 26 • The Characteristics of Quantitative
and Qualitative Research 26 • The Types of Research
Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative
Research 26 • The Important Ethical Issues 27 •
The Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research 27
Useful Information for Producers of Research 27
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 27
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 28
Sample Quantitative Study
Sample Qualitative Study
29
42
PART II The Steps in the Process
of Research 57
2
Chapter
Identifying a Research
Problem 58
What Is a Research Problem and Why Is It Important? 59
How Does the Research Problem Differ from Other Parts
of Research? 59
Can and Should Problems Be Researched? 61
Can You Gain Access to People and Sites? 61 •
Can You Find Time, Locate Resources, and
Use Your Skills? 61 • Should the Problem Be
Researched? 62
How Does the Research Problem Differ in Quantitative
and Qualitative Research? 63
How Do You Write a “Statement of the Problem”
Section? 64
The Topic 64 • The Research Problem 66 •
Justification of the Importance of the Problem 66 •
Deficiencies in What We Know 69 • The
Audience 70
What Are Some Strategies for Writing the “Statement of
the Problem” Section? 70
A Template 70 • Other Writing Strategies 71 •
Think-Aloud About Writing a “Statement of the
Problem” 72
ix
x
CONTENTS
Examples of “Statement of the Problem” Sections 72
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in School Principals Studies 75
Key Ideas in the Chapter
76
Define a Research Problem and Explain Its
Importance 76 • Distinguish between a Research
Problem and Other Parts of Research 76 • Criteria
for Deciding Whether a Problem Can and Should Be
Researched 76 • The Difference between
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Problems 76
• The Five Elements of a “Statement of the Problem”
Section 76 • Strategies Useful in Writing the
“Statement of the Problem” Section 76
Useful Information for Producers of Research 77
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 77
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 77
Conducting Your Research
3
Chapter
78
Reviewing the Literature 79
What Is a Literature Review and Why Is It Important? 80
How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative
and Qualitative Studies? 80
What Are the Five Steps in Conducting a Literature
Review? 81
Identify Key Terms 82 • Locate Literature 82 •
Critically Evaluate and Select the Literature 91 •
Organize the Literature 92 • Write a Literature
Review 98
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Studies 104
Literature Review Analysis in a Quantitative
Study 104 • Literature Review Analysis in a
Qualitative Study 104
Key Ideas in the Chapter
105
What Is a Review of the Literature and Why Is It
Important? 105 • The Five Steps in Conducting a
Literature Review 105
Useful Information for Producers of Research 106
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 107
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 107
Conducting Your Research
4
Chapter
107
Specifying a Purpose and Research
Questions or Hypotheses 109
What Are Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
Hypotheses, and Objectives? 109
The Purpose Statement 110 • Research
Questions 110 • Hypotheses 111 • Research
Objectives 111
Why Are These Statements and Questions
Important? 112
How Do You Design Quantitative Purpose Statements,
Research Questions, and Hypotheses? 112
Specify Variables 112 • The Family of
Variables 114 • Think-Aloud About Identifying
Variables? 119 • Theories and Testing of
Variables 120 • Writing Quantitative Purpose
Statements 122 • Writing Quantitative Research
Questions 124 • Writing Quantitative
Hypotheses 125
How Do You Design Qualitative Purpose Statements and
Research Questions? 128
Differentiating between Quantitative and Qualitative
Purpose Statements and Research Questions 128
The Central Phenomenon in Qualitative Research 129
Emerging Processes in Qualitative Research 130 •
Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements 131 •
Writing Qualitative Research Questions 132
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust
in Principals Studies 136
Key Ideas in the Chapter
136
Distinguish among Purpose Statements, Research
Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives 136 • Know
Why These Statements and Questions Are
Important 137 • Write Quantitative Purpose
Statements, Research Questions, and
Hypotheses 137 • Write Qualitative Purpose
Statements and Research Questions 137
Useful Information for Producers of Research 137
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 138
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 138
Conducting Your Research
5
Chapter
139
Collecting Quantitative Data 140
Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection 140
What Participants Will You Study? 141
Identify Your Unit of Analysis 141 • Specify the
Population and Sample 141
What Permissions Will You Need? 147
Obtain Different Types of Permissions 147 • Obtain
Informed Consent 148
What Information Will You Collect? 150
Specify Variables from Research Questions and
Hypotheses 150 • Operationally Define Each
xi
CONTENTS
Variable 151 • Choose Types of Data and
Measures 151
What Instrument Will You Use to Collect Data? 157
Locate or Develop an Instrument 157 • Search for
an Instrument 157 • Criteria for Choosing a Good
Instrument 158 • Interval/Ratio Scales 167 •
Think-Aloud About Finding and Selecting an
Instrument 167
How Will You Administer the Data Collection? 169
Standardization 169 • Ethical Issues 169
Reexamining the Quantitative Parent Involvement
Study 170
Key Ideas in the Chapter
170
State the Five Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data
Collection 170 • Identify How to Select Participants for
a Study 171 • Identify the Permissions Needed for a
Study 171 • List Different Options for Collecting
Information 171 • Locate, Select, and Assess an
Instrument(s) for Use in Data Collection 171 •
Describe Procedures for Administering Quantitative Data
Collection 171
Useful Information for Producers of Research 171
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 172
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 172
Conducting Your Research
6
Chapter
173
200
Identify the Steps in the Process of Analyzing and
Interpreting Quantitative Data 200 • Preparing
Your Data for Analysis 201 • Analyzing the
Data 201 • Reporting the Results 201 •
Interpreting the Results 201
Useful Information for Producers of Research 202
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 202
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 202
Conducting Your Research
7
Chapter
203
Collecting Qualitative Data 204
What Are the Five Process Steps in Qualitative Data
Collection? 205
What Are the Different Sampling Approaches for Selecting
Participants and Sites? 206
Purposeful Sampling 206 • Sample Size or Number
of Research Sites 209
What Types of Permissions Will Be Required to Gain
Access to Participants and Sites? 210
Seek Institutional Review Board Approval 210 •
Gatekeepers 211
What Types of Qualitative Data Will You Collect? 212
Observations 212 • Interviews 217 •
Documents 223 • Audiovisual Materials 224
Analyzing and Interpreting
Quantitative Data 174
What Procedures Will Be Used to Record Data?
What Are the Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data
Analysis? 175
How Do You Prepare the Data for Analysis?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
175
Score the Data 175 • Determine the Types
of Scores to Analyze 177 • Select a Statistical
Program 178 • Input Data 179 • Clean and
Account for Missing Data 181
How Do You Analyze the Data? 182
Conduct Descriptive Analysis 183 • Conduct
Inferential Analysis 187
How Do You Report the Results? 195
Tables 196 • Figures 196 • Present
Results 197
How Do You Interpret the Results? 197
Summarize the Major Results 198 • Explain Why the
Results Occurred 199 • Advance Limitations 199 •
Suggest Future Research 199
Reexamining Data Analysis and Interpretation in the
Parent Involvement Study 199
225
Using Protocols 225 • Think-Aloud About
Observing 227
What Field and Ethical Issues Need to Be
Anticipated? 228
Field Issues 228 • Ethical Issues 230
Revisiting the Mothers’ Trust in Principals Qualitative
Study 232
Key Ideas in the Chapter
233
Five Process Steps in Collecting Data 233 • Sampling
Approaches to Selecting Participants and Sites 233 •
Permissions Required to Gain Access 233 •
Various Types of Qualitative Data to Collect 233 •
Procedures for Recording Data 233 • Field
Issues and Ethical Considerations in Data
Collection 233
Useful Information for Producers of Research 234
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 234
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 234
Conducting Your Research
235
xii
8
Chapter
CONTENTS
Analyzing and Interpreting
Qualitative Data 236
What Are the Six Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting
Qualitative Data? 237
How Do You Prepare and Organize the Data for
Analysis? 238
Organize Data 238 • Transcribe Data 239 •
Analyze by Hand or Computer 239 • Use of
Qualitative Computer Programs 241
How Do You Explore and Code the Data?
243
Explore the General Sense of the Data 243 • Code
the Data 243 • Think-Aloud About Coding a
Transcript 245
How Do You Use Codes to Build Description and
Themes? 247
Description 247 • Themes
Interrelating Themes 251
248 • Layering and
How Do You Represent and Report Findings? 253
Representing Findings 253 • Reporting
Findings 254
How Do You Interpret Findings?
257
Summarize Findings 258 • Convey Personal
Reflections 258 • Make Comparisons to the
Literature 258 • Offer Limitations and Suggestions
for Future Research 259
How Do You Validate the Accuracy of Your Findings? 259
What Audience Will Receive the Report? 266 • What
Are the Types of Research Reports? 267
How Should You Structure Your Report? 272
Look at the Physical Structure of Research
Reports 272 • Design an Appropriate Quantitative
Structure 273 • Design an Appropriate Qualitative
Structure 273 • Think-Aloud About the Structure of
a Study 276
How Do You Write in a Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly
Way? 277
Use Language That Reduces Bias 277 • Encode
Scholarly Terms into Your Research 278 • Use
Ethical Reporting and Writing of Research Results 278 •
Use an Appropriate Point of View 280 • Balance
Your Research and Content 281 • Interconnect
Sections for Consistency 281 • Advance a Concise
Title 282
How Do You Evaluate the Quality of Your
Research? 282
Employ Appropriate Standards 283 • Quantitative
Standards 283 • Qualitative Standards 283 •
Evaluate with a Process Approach 285
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust
in Principals Studies 288
Key Ideas in the Chapter
288
The Purpose of a Research Report and Its
Types 288 • How to Structure your Research
Report 289 • Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly
Writing Practices 289 • Criteria for Evaluating
a Research Report 289
Reexamining Qualitative Data Analysis in the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Case Study 260
Useful Information for Producers of Research 289
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 290
261
Six Steps in the Process of Analyzing and
Interpreting Qualitative Data 261 • Prepare and
Organize the Data for Analysis 261 • Explore and
Code the Data 261 • Coding to Build Description
and Themes 261 • Represent and Report
Qualitative Findings 262 • Interpret the
Findings 262 • Validate the Accuracy of the
Findings 262
Useful Information for Producers of Research 262
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 263
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 263
Conducting Your Research
9
Chapter
264
Reporting and Evaluating
Research 265
What Is a Research Report and What Are Its
Types? 266
Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research
Studies 290
Conducting Your Research
291
PART III Research Designs 293
10
Chapter
Experimental Designs 294
What Is an Experiment, When Should You Use It, and
How Did It Develop? 295
When Do You Use an Experiment? 295 • When Did
Experiments Develop? 295
What Are Key Characteristics of Experiments? 296
Random Assignment 296 • Control Over Extraneous
Variables 297 • Manipulating Treatment
Conditions 300 • Outcome Measures 301 • Group
Comparisons 302 • Threats to Validity 302
What Are the Types of Experimental Designs? 307
CONTENTS
Between-Group Designs 309 • Within-Group or
Individual Designs 313
What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Experimental
Research? 321
What Are the Steps in Conducting Experimental
Research? 322
Step 1. Decide if an Experiment Addresses Your
Research Problem 322 • Step 2. Form Hypotheses to
Test Cause-and-Effect Relationships 322 • Step 3.
Select an Experimental Unit and Identify Study
Participants 323 • Step 4. Select an Experimental
Treatment and Introduce It 324 • Step 5. Choose a
Type of Experimental Design 324 • Step 6. Conduct
the Experiment 324 • Step 7. Organize and Analyze
the Data 324 • Step 8. Develop an Experimental
Research Report 325
How Do You Evaluate Experimental Research? 325
Key Ideas in the Chapter
326
A Definition of Experimental Research, When to Use It,
and How It Developed 326 • Key Characteristics of
Experimental Research 326 • Types of Experimental
Designs 326 • Ethical Issues in Experimental
Research 326 • Steps in Conducting an
Experiment 327 • Evaluating an Experiment 327
Useful Information for Producers of Research 327
Useful Information for Consumers of Research 328
Additional Resources You Might Examine 328
xiii
Two or More Measures for Each Individual in the
Study 355 • Step 4. Collect Data and Monitor
Potential Threats 355 • Step 5. Analyze the Data
and Represent the Results 356 • Step 6. Interpret the
Results 357
How Do You Evaluate …
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